Family members commissioned most ancestor portraits. They were painted in workshops as the result of collaboration among several artists, few of whom ever signed their names. Workshop organization was highly specialized, and tasks were divided according to skill. The newest, least-skilled artisans might paint only the ancestor’s hat or shoes, while master artists painted faces. Faces were the most important part of the portrait, because they needed to be realistic and individualized; in contrast, the body and its clothing were used to describe social status and did not need to be personalized.

To simplify production, some artists used stencils to draw the bodies and the chairs. Other artists used grids to create the proper proportions for bodies. They could draw a grid in charcoal, which would be erased when painting.

Painting faces required the most skill—in painting just the eyes and eyebrow hairs, artists might use brushes of six different sizes. Painting accurate faces was important, which created a problem if the subject of the portrait was already dead. The artist might bring a sketchbook of faces for clients to look over. The family would then select features based on the sketches—for example, “ears like those on sketch 2 and a nose like that on sketch 5.” Other times, artists would study the features of living relatives and draw the ancestor portrait based on common features. If necessary, the artist would view the corpse—but only if the deceased was male, since ideas about virtue declared that women should not be seen by outsiders.

Family members commissioned ancestor portraits to commemorate deceased relatives. These paintings were treated with the greatest respect. On certain holidays, families would honor their ancestors by bowing before the portraits and placing food in front of them. If properly cared for, ancestors contributed to wealth and good fortune for their descendants. If ignored, ancestors could turn into nasty ghosts who would bring bad luck.

Ancestor portraits have a long history in China and stems from filial piety. This one dates from the early part of the Qing [CHING] dynasty (1644–1911), the last imperial dynasty. Ancestor portraits were usually painted in pairs, so a matching portrait of this man’s wife may exist somewhere.

Ancestors were usually shown in their best dress, which gives us a way to judge the rank of a subject even if we don’t know his or her identity. The most formal costume in the Qing wardrobe was called chaofu, “court dress.” Chao fu [chow FOO]did not refer to a single garment but to an entire outfit, the way a “tuxedo” consists of a shirt, pants, jacket, tie, and cummerbund. Chao fu required a court hat, robe, necklace, and belt, all with prescribed decorations and symbols.

Based on the style of his formal robe, this man was probably an official of the highest rank. However, sometimes people exaggerated an ancestor’s status. Also, if a man attained a higher status than his ancestors had, he could posthumously apply that ranking to his father and grandfather. He might even commission new portraits to show these ancestors with a higher rank.